四级考试考试题（1）

(一)会议资料的类型和准备

1、会议资料的类型

(1)来宾资料：会议手册、宣传材料、会议管理性材料。

(2)会议资料：开会的请示、提交会议审批的文件、会上用的文件、会议宣传性文件。

(3)沟通资料：来宾登记表、住宿登记表、用餐分组表、会务组成员通讯录。

2、会议资料的准备

(1)来宾资料袋内容：会议手册、会议文件资料、分组名单、笔记本、文具、代表证、房号、餐券等。

(2)会务资料内容：接站一览表、来宾登记表、住宿登记表、用餐分组表、订票登记表、会议讨论分组表、会务组成员通讯录。

(3)沟通资料内容：会议参考文件、会议宣传文件资料、各种记录、各种会议协议和合同以及相关资料。

(二)会议用品的类型和准备

1、会议用品的类型

(1)必备用品和设备是指各类会议都需要的用品和设备。

1)会议内设备主要包括灯光设备、音响设备、空调设备、通风设备、录音、摄像等设备以及必要的安全设施等。

2)常用物资有电脑、打印机、复印机、传真机、照相机、摄像机或小型DVD、胶卷、饮用水、一次性水杯、电池、裁纸刀、剪刀、胶带纸、双面胶、回形针、大头针、胶水、白板笔、白粉笔等。

(2)特殊用品是指一些特殊类型的会议所需用品和设备。例如，选举会议、谈判会议、庆典会议、展览会经常需要的特殊用品和设备，如伴奏带、投票箱、旗帜、仪仗队、鲜花等。

2、准备会议用品

(1)检查空调设备，必要时做好开机准备，一般要在会议前两小时预热或预冷。

(2)检查好灯光、扩音设备。

(3)检查黑板、白板，确保已擦干净，准备好粉笔、指示棒、板擦等用具。

(4)如有陌生人或外来人参加会议，摆放好姓名牌，注意文字大小适当，清楚易认。

(5)在每人座位前摆放纸笔。

(6)多媒体电视需要安放投影机、屏幕、录音设备等。

(7)如果有选举、表决、表彰的议程，还需要准备好投票箱、计数设备和奖励用品。

(8)会期较长的会议，要安排好茶水饮料，并指定专人服务。

(9)如果是电话、广播会议，须提前检查线路，保证音响效果良好。

信息与档案

信息分类的五大方法：字母分类法、地区分类法、主题分类法、数字分类法和时间分类法。其中主题分类法用的最多。

选择题：信息筛选方法：主要是前三个：看来源、看标题、看正文。 题型：前三个占三个选项，在随便写一个构成四个选项，让你选择。

信息取舍的方法：一是择其重点;二是择优录用

对信息决定取舍时，要留下的信息应要：一突出思想;二要注意典型性;三要富有新意

信息核对方法：重点看一(溯源法)、三点(核对法)。题型：可能反过来考

信息工作程序：收集、整理、传递、存储、利用、反馈(顺序不能错)

其中信息整理是信息工作的核心，是对原始信息进行分类、筛选、核实

信息分类的步骤：辨类和归类

在分类中遵循的原则：A科学系统原则B层次性原则C符合实际原则D交叉包容原则 答案：ABC 见书上第301页下

信息内向传递的形式有：备忘录、传阅单、企业内部刊物等;

信息外向传递的形式有：新闻稿、新闻发布会等 题型：随机写出四个，让你选择是内向传递的形式?或外向传递的形式?

信息传递：口头传递的缺点：信息零乱;较难储存

企业文字传递信息的主要表现形式有：文本、表格、图表、框图

表示企业生产常用柱状图、饼行图

信息传递的三要素：信源、信道、信宿

信源分为原生源和再生源

信宿包括接受信息和利用信息

何为信息的登记和编码?

答案：登记即建立信息的完整记录，系统地反映存储情况，便于查找和利用。信息的登记包括总括登记和个别登记;登记的形式有薄册式、卡片式

信息的编码是为了适应电子计算机处理的需求，它的编码结构一般由字符(字母或数字)组成基本数码，再由基本数码结合成为组合数据。

信息编码的一般步骤：①分析所有预编码的信息资料②选择最佳的编码方法③确定数码的位数。

信息资料编码的方法：①顺序编码法②分组编码法：所有项目都要有同样多的数码个数，左边数码表示大类，而向右排列的每一个数码，则标志着更细的小类。

在登记、编码后，要根据时序、来源、内容、字顺排序。排序完后，要进行科学保管，因为保管关系到信息的安全、完整和使用寿命。

四级考试考试题（2）

大学英语四级考试题答案

英语四级选词填空练习题(一)

What determines the kind of person you are? What factors make you more or less bold, intelligent, or able to read a map? All of these are influenced by the interaction of your genes and the environment in which you were __1__. The study of how genes and environment interact to influence __2__ activity is known as behavioral genetics. Behavioral genetics has made important __3__ to the biological revolution, providing information about the extent to which biology influences mind, brain and behavior.

Any research that suggests that __4__ to perform certain behaviors are based in biology is controversial. Who wants to be told that there are limitations to what you can __5__ based on something that is beyond your control, such as your genes? It is easy to accept that genes control physical characteristics such as sex, race and eye color. But can genes also determine whether people will get divorced, how __6__ they are, or what career they are likely to choose? A concern of psychological scientists is the __7__ to which all of these characteristics are influenced by nature and nurture(养育), by genetic makeup and the environment. Increasingly, science __8__ that genes lay the groundwork for many human traits. From this perspective, people are born __9__ like undeveloped photographs: The image is already captured, but the way it __10__ appears can vary based on the development process. However, the basic picture is there from the beginning.

[A] abilities

[B] achieve

[C] appeal

[D] complaints

[E] contributions

[F] displayed

[G] essentially

[H] eventually

[I] extent

[J] indicates

[K] proceeds

[L] psychological

[M] raised

[N] smart

[O] standard

英语四级选词填空练习题答案

1. [M] raised raise在这里的意思是"养育"，the environment in which you were raised 意思是"你成长的环境"。

2. [L] psychological "psychological activity"意思是"心理活动"，全句意思是"研究基因和外部环境如何相互作用影响人心理活动的学科被称为行为遗传学"。

3. [E] contributions "make contributions to"为固定搭配，意为"为……做贡献"。

4. [A] abilities "ability to …"意思是"做某事的能力"，在此处，全句意思是"任何一篇宣称人类做出某种行为的能力是基于生物学的研究都是有争议的"。

5. [B] achieve "limitations to what you can achieve"意思是"对你所能达到的水平的限制"。

6. [N] smart 此处需填一个形容词，而且用来形容人，根据题意，smart符合题意，表示"机灵，可爱"。

7. [I] extent 此处填extent，主要是因为后面有to，"to the extent …"译为"……的程度"。

8. [J] indicates indicate 意思是"表明，显示"。全句意为"越来越多的科学(现象)表明基因对人类很多特征有基础作用"。

9. [G] essentially essentially 的'意思是"实际上，本质上"。全句意为"从这个角度来讲，人一出生，本质上就像是还没洗出来的照片：相已经照了，但是最终会呈现多少就在于显影的过程了"。

10. [H] eventually eventually 副词，意思是"最终，最后"。

英语四级选词填空练习题(二)

There's no question that the Earth is getting hotter. The real questions are: How much of the warming is our fault, and are we 1 to slow the devastation by controlling ourinsatiable 2 for fossil fuels?

Global warming can seem too 3 to worry about, or too uncertain-something projected by the same computer 4 that often can't get next week's weather right. On a raw winter day you might think that a few degrees of warming wouldn't be such a bad thing anyway. And no doubt about it: Warnings about 5 change can sound like an environmentalist scare tactic, meant to force us out of our cars and restrict our lifestyles.

Comforting thoughts, perhaps. Unfortunately, however, the Earth has some discomforting news. From Alaska to the snowy peaks of the Andes the world is heating up right now, and fast. Globally, the 6 is up 1°F over the past century, but some of the coldest, most remote spots have warmed much more. The results aren't pretty. Ice is 7 , rivers are running dry, and coasts are 8 , threatening communities.

The 9 are happening largely out of sight. But they shouldn't be out of mind, because they are omens of what's in store for the 10 of the planet.

[A]remote

[B]techniques

[C]consisting

[D]rest

[E]willing

[F]climate

[G]skill

[H]appetite

[I]melting

[J]vanishing

[K]eroding

[L]temperature

[M]curiosity

[N]changes

[O]skillful

英语四级选词填空练习题答案

1.【解析】[E] 此处应填入E项，be willing to 为固定搭配。

2.【解析】[H] 此处应填入一个名词，而appetite通常和介词for搭配，此处句子的意思为控制我们无止境的欲望。

3.【解析】[A] 此处应填入一个形容词，根据上下文意思应选A项，意即:全球气候变暖似乎离我们太遥远，以至于我们无需为此担心。

4.【解析】[B] 此处应填入一个名词，而与computer 搭配的名词在选项中根据上下文意思B为正确选项。

5.【解析】[F] 根据上下文意思此处应表达气候变化之意，因此F为正确选项。

6.【解析】[L] 该题较为简单，表示"上个世纪全球的气温上升了1华氏度"，应能迅速找出正确答案。

7.【解析】[I] 显然ice 与melt 搭配，因此I为正确选项。

8.【解析】[K] 此处应填入一个现在分词，表示"海岸受到侵蚀"，因此应选K项。

9.【解析】[N] 该题较为简单，应填入一个复数名词，所以填入N项。

10.【解析】[D] 选D项，the rest of 为固定搭配。

四级考试考试题（3）

四级听力考试题及答案

Section A

Directions : In this section, you will hear 8 short conversations and 2 long conversations.At the end ofeach conversation, one or more questions will be asked about what was said.Both theconversation and the questions will be spoken only once.After each question there will bea pause.During the pause, you must read the four choices marked A., B), C.and D),and decide which is the best answer.Then mark the corresponding letter on AnswerSheet 1 with a single line through the centre.

1.A.He will give the woman some tips on the game.

B.The woman has good reason to quit the game.

C.He is willing to play chess with the woman.

D.The woman should go on playing chess.

2.A.The man can forward the mail to Mary.

B.She can call Mary to take care of the mail.

C.Mary probably knows Sally's new address.

D.She would like to resume contact with Sally.

3.A.His handwriting has a unique style.

B.His notes are not easy to read.

C.He did not attend today's class.

D.He is very pleased to be able to help.

4.A.The man had better choose another restaurant.

B.The new restaurant is a perfect place for dating.

C.The new restaurant caught her fancy immediately.

D.The man has good taste in choosing the restaurant.

5.A.He has been looking forward to spring.

B.He has been waiting for the winter sale.

C.He will clean the woman's boots for spring.

D.He will help the woman put things away.

6.A.The woman is rather forgetful.

B.The man appreciates the woman's help.

C.The man often lends books to the woman.

D.The woman often works overtime at weekends.

7.A.Go to work on foot.

B.Take a sightseeing trip.

C.Start work earlier than usual.

D.Take a walk when the weather is nice.

8.A.The plane is going to land at another airport.

B.All flights have been delayed due to bad weather.

C.Temporary closing has disturbed the airport's operation.

D.The airport's management is in real need of improvement.

Questions 9 to 12 are based on the conversation you have just heard.

9.A.It specializes in safety from leaks.

B.It is headquartered in London.

C.It has a partnership with LCP.

D.It has a chemical processing plant.

10.A.He is Mr.Grand's friend.

B.He is a safety inspector.

C.He is a salesman.

D.He is a chemist.

11.A.Director of the safety department.

B.Mr.Grand's personal assistant.

C.Head of the personnel department.

D.The public relations officer.

12.A.Walt for Mr.Grand to call back.

B.Leave a message for Mr.Grand.

C.Provide details of their products and services.

D.Send a comprehensive description of their work.

Questions 13 to 15 are based on the conversation you have just heard.

13.A.She learned playing the violin from a famous French musician.

B.She dreamed of working and living in a European country.

C.She read a lot about European musicians and their music.

D.She listened to recordings of many European orchestras.

14.A.She began taking violin lessons as a small child.

B.She was a pupil of a famous European violinist.

C.She gave her first performance with her father.

D.She became a professional violinist at fifteen.

15.A.It gave her a chance to explore the city.

B.It was the chance of a lifetime.

C.It was a great challenge to her.

D.It helped her learn classical French music.

Section B

Directions: In this section, you will hear 3 short passages.At the end of each passage, you will hearsome questions.Both the passage and the questions will be spoken only once.After youhear a question, you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A., B),C.and D ).Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 1 with a single linethrough the centre.

Passage One

Questions 16 to 18 are based on the passage you have just heard.

16.A.There are mysterious stories behind his works.

B.There are many misunderstandings about him.

C.His works have no match worldwide.

D.His personal history is little known.

17.A.He moved to Stratford-on-Avon in his childhood.

B.He failed to go beyond grammar school.

C.He was a member of the town council.

D.He once worked in a well-known acting company.

18.A.Writers of his time had no means to protect their works.

B.Possible sources of clues about him were lost in a fire.

C.His works were adapted beyond recognition.

D.People of his time had little interest in him.

Passage Two

Questions 19 to 21 are based on the passage you have just heard.

19.A.Theft.

B.Cheating.

C.Air crash.

D.Road accidents.

20.A.Learn the local customs.

B.Make hotel reservations.

C.Book tickets well in advance.

D.Have the right documents.

21.A.Contact your agent.

B.Get a lift if possible.

C.Use official transport.

D.Have a friend meet you.

Passage Three

Questions 22 to 25 are based on the passage you have just heard.

22.A.Cut down production cost.

B.Sell inexpensive products.

C.Specialise in gold ornaments.

D.Refine the taste of his goods.

23.A.At a national press conference.

B.During a live television interview.

C.During a local sales promotion campaign.

D.At a meeting of top British businesspeople.

24.A.Insulted.

B.Puzzled.

C.Distressed.

D.Discouraged.

25.A.The words of some businesspeople are just rubbish.

B.He who never learns from the past is bound to fail.

C.There should be a limit to one's sense of humour.

D.He is not laughed at, that laughs at himself first.

Section C

Directions: In this section, you will hear a passage three times.When the passage is read for the firsttime, you should listen carefully for its general idea.When the passage is read for thesecond time, you are required to fill in the blanks with the exact words you have justheard.Finally, when the passage is read for the third time, you should check what youhave written.

Looking at the basic biological systems, the world is not doing very well.Yet economic indicators show the world is (26) Despite a slow start at the beginning of the eighties, global economic output increased by more than a fifth during the (27) The economy grew, trade increased, and millions of new jobs were created.How can biological indicators show the 28 of economic indicators?

The answer is that the economic indicators have a basic fault: they show no difference between resource uses that( 29) progress and those uses that will hurt it.The main measure of economic progress is the gross national product (GNP). (30) , this totals the value of all goods and services produced and subtracts loss in value of factories and equipment.Developed a half-century ago, GNP helped (31) a common way among countries of measuring change in economic output.For some time, this seemed to work (32 )well, but serious weaknesses are now appearing.As indicated earlier, GNP includes loss in value of factories and equipment, but it does not( 33 )the loss of natural resources, including nonrenewable resources such as oil or renewable resources such as forests.

This basic fault can produce a( 34 )sense of national economic health.According to GNP, for example, countries that overcut forests actually do better than those that preserve their forests.The trees cut down are counted as income but no subtraction is made for (35 )the forests.

答案：

1.D)。选项中多次出现game和play chess，可以推测对话内容与下象棋有关。另外，从四个选项的内容审可以椎测，对话讲的府该县女士想放弃下象棋，男士给出建议或指导。

本题的关键在于听懂反问句和反问的语调。女士说因为今天又输了，所以打算放弃下象棋。男士没有正面回应，而是反问了两句：Just because you lost?Is that any reaSon to quit?”仅仅是因为输了吗?那能算是放弃的理由吗?”言外之意就是不该放弃。换句话说就是，男士建议女士继续下棋。故本题答案为D)。

2.C)。选项中出现了mail，address和contact等词，可以推测对话内容和邮件有关：由选项中的玛丽和萨利两个人名可知对话的内容涉及另外两个人，人物较多，听录音时应注意区分人物之间的关系，做好标记;另外，选项A)以the mail作主语，选项B)和D)以she作主语，可以推测该题会从女士的角度提问，女士的话为听音重点。

本题的关键在于听到细节“Mary should know it.”男士想把萨利的邮件转寄给她，问女士是否知道她的地址。女士说自己很久没跟萨利联系了，但是结尾补充了一句：“玛丽应该知道地址。”故本题答案为C)。

3.B)。选项中出现了handwriting，notes和class等词，可以推测对话内容应该与上课做笔记有关。另外，四个选项中，A)和B)以his开头，C)和D)以he为主语，可以推测该题会从男士的角度提问，男士的话为听音重点。

解题的关键是听懂反意疑问句。女士想要借男士的笔记看，男士没有正面回答，而是反问道：You've never seen my handwriting，have you?“你没看过我的笔迹，对吗?”言外之意就是自己的笔迹难以辨认，不易读懂。故本题答案为B)。

4.A)。四个选项中反复出现了choose和restaurant等词，由此推测对话内容与选择饭店有关。另外，选项A)和D)均是讲男士选择饭店，而选项B)和C)则出现了dating和her，故可推测该题可能是从女士的角度看待男士所选择的饭店，女士的话为听音重点。男士说今晚要带女朋友去新开的饭店过生日。女士说她上周去过，太让她失望了。从rather disaDpointing可以听出女士话语中强烈的否定意味，言外之意就是建议男士不要去这家饭店了，应该另选一家。故本题答案为A)。

5.A)。四个选项中三个都提到了季节，由此推测对话内容可能与季节有关。另外，四个选项都是以he开头，故可判断该题会从男士的角度进行提问，男士的话为听音重点。

女士说，冬天终于结束了，可以把手套和靴子收起来了。男士回应说为此他已经等了好几个月了。显然男士和女士一样非常期待冬天的结束，也就是盼望春天的到来。故本题答案为A)。

6.B).四个选项中，A)和D)以the woman为主语，B)和C)以the man为主语，选项在内容上较分散，可以推测该题并非针对男士或女士个人的话提问，而是考查对整个对话的理解，听音时应注意从全局把握对话内容。

对话开头，女士对男士说，谢谢他把书送回来，由此可知应该是男士借了女士的书，故首先排除C)项：男士说，他认为女士周末会用到，而且感谢女士让他使用这些书，故本题选择B)。

7.A)。选项中涉及work，on foot，trip和walk等词，可推测对话和步行上班或旅行相关。四个选项均为动词短语，由此可推断该题会对建议或计划进行提问，应特别注意和建议或计划相关的表述。

女士问男士的工作时间是否可以变通，男士回答说，不能。但今天天气很好，他决定步行去上班。所以必须比平常早一个小时出发。男士话语中有明显的'表示计划的动词decided，其后的内容就是本题的答案，故答案为A)。

8.C)。四个选项均涉及飞机和机场，而且都和机场存在的问题有关，故听音的重点为机场在哪方面出现了问题。

9.D)。由对话开头可知，男士在给女士打电话，女士问男士有什么事情，男士在说明来电目的前说，自己了解到女士的公司有家化学加工厂，故D)为答案。

10.C)。对话中，男士先表明自己的身份，介绍了自己公司，说明了来电目的是想和格兰德先生讨论如何帮助TGC公司防止泄漏，同时节省开支的问题，实际上就是要推荐自己公司的产品，由此可推断男士是一名销售员，故C)为答案。

11.B)。对话中，女士告知男士格兰德先生非常忙，没空与男士说话，男士想找其他人商谈，女士告诉他，他正和格兰德先生的私人助理说话，即女士就是格兰德先生的私人助理，故B)为答案。

12.C)。对话中，女士说let me suggest Something，由此可知，其后就是女士对男士的建议，即为该题的答案。对话中，女士建议男士将其公司产品和服务的详情以及其他公司的推荐信一并寄送过来，之后会和男士联系，故C)为答案。

13.D)。男士问女士是否想过会在西方世界生活和工作，女士回答说没有，但是自己一直都听欧洲大型管弦乐队的唱片，由此可知女士在到欧洲之前听过很多欧洲管弦乐队的唱片，故D)是答案。

14.A)。男士问女士是否很小就喜欢古典音乐，女士给出肯定回答，并说自己六岁就开始在学校学习小提琴，故A)为答案。

15.B)。对话末尾，女士提到自己十五岁获得奖学金到巴黎留学，男士询问女士父母对此有何感受，女士说她父母喜忧参半，因为这既是个千载难逢的机会，也意味着她要远离故乡。四个选项中只有B)与原文相符，故为答案。

16.D)。短文中作者先提出“有多少人了解莎士比亚本人”的问题，接着指出学者们经过几个世纪的研究之后，仍然在不断探索他的个人史。由此可知，莎士比亚的个人史很少有人知道，故D)为答案。

17.C)。本题考查对莎士比亚父亲的了解，由于使用的人称代词都是he，会对听前预测造成一定的干扰，在听录音时应注意将选项和短文内容进行匹配区别。文章中提到莎士比亚的父亲受人尊敬，是埃文河畔斯特拉特福镇议会的一名成员，故C)为答案。

18.B)。文章中提到1666年伦敦的一场大火把很多重要文件烧毁了，而这些本来可能是了解莎士比亚的线索，因此莎士比亚的一部分生活将永远不为人所知，故B)为答案。

19.A)。短文开头部分提到，人们在外出旅游时遇到的大部分人都是既友好又热情的，但也会遇到很多危险，而其中最为常见的就是盗窃，故A)为答案。

20.D)。文中提到，在准备出国旅游时，一定要确保文件正确，谁都不想到了目的地却发现签证错误、护照过期等情况。选项D)中的documents与文中的paperwork是同义转述，故D)为答案。

21.C)。文章最后给出建议：到达目的地后要选择乘坐正规的交通工具，故C)为答案。

22.B)。短文提到，拉特纳在1984年接管了父亲的珠宝连锁店后，决定以最低的价格卖出低档产品，选项B)中sell inexpensive products是原文sell downmarket products的同义转述，故B)为答案。

23.D)。短文明确提到，在英国上层商人会议上，拉特纳出席并解释了自己成功的秘密，故D)为答案。

24.A)。短文提到，听到拉特纳的评论后，人们觉得受到了侮辱并远离拉特纳的商店，故A)为答案。

25.C)。短文开头就点明了主题，提到英国人以自嘲闻名，但即使是对他们来说，幽默也应该有限度，接着短文以拉特纳的故事为例说明这个主题，文末再次强调“这个玩笑的代价太大了”，以此首尾呼应，告诉我们开玩笑要有度，故C)为答案。

26.prospering。此处应该填人一个现在分词或形容词，作is的表语。prospering意为“繁荣的”。

27.decade。此处应该填入表示时间的名词，与前面的介词during搭配。decade意为“十年”。

28.opposite。此处应该填入名词。opposite意为“对立面”。

29.sustain。此处应该填入动词原形作从句谓语，上文的先行词reSource uses充当其主语。sustain意为“保持，维持”。

30.In simple terms。此处应该填入副词或介词短语作状语。in simple terms意为“简言之”。

31.establish。此处应该填入动词原形，与其前面的help搭配，并且能和后面的way搭配。estabfish意为“建立，设立”。

32.reaSonably。此处应该填入副词修饰well。reaSonably意为“尚可，还可以”。

33.take into account。此处应该填入动词原形或动词短语。take into account意为“考虑，重视”。

34.misleading。此处应该填入形容词来修饰sense。misleading意为“令人误解的”。

35.using up。此处应该填人动名词或动名词短语来作介词for的宾语，并和forests进行搭配。usingup意为“耗尽，用光”。

四级考试考试题（4）

四级翻译备考试题及答案

1. But for mobile phone, ________________ (我们的通信就不可能如此迅速和方便)。

2. In handling an embarrassing situation, _______________ (没有什么比幽默感更有帮助的了)。

3. The Foreign Minster said he was resigning, _______________ (但他拒绝进一步解释这样做的`原因)。

4. Human behavior is mostly a product of learning, __________________ (而动物的行为主要依靠本能)。

5. The witness was told that under no circumstances ________________ (他都不应该对法庭说谎)。

答案与解析：

1.our communication would not have been so efficient and convenient

虚拟语气的用法，but for 要不是，假若没有 ，在句子开头引导虚拟语气。需要注意的是，除了but for以外，能够表示虚拟条件的词和短语还包括：but that、without、otherwise、or等。

2.nothing is more helpful than humor/ a sense of humor

more than 比 多 ;幽默感sense of humor

3.but he refused to make further explanation(注意时态)

拒绝做某事：refuse to do;进一步make further explanation

4.while animal behavior depends mainly upon their instinct

本题句型考点为while在分句中间做转折连词的用法，词汇考点则为behavior, depend on/upon, instinct等基础词汇的基本用法。此外，根据前半句得出，behavior在这里用单数表示行为概念。